As snow accumulates, each layer presses on lower layers, making them denser until they turn into firn. There is increasingly dense firn between surface snow and blue glacier ice.Īn ice core is a vertical column through a glacier, sampling the layers that formed through an annual cycle of snowfall and melt. Sampling the surface of Taku Glacier in Alaska. In Greenland, a sequence of collaborative projects began in the 1970s with the Greenland Ice Sheet Project there have been multiple follow-up projects, with the most recent, the East Greenland Ice-Core Project, originally expected to complete a deep core in east Greenland in 2020 but since postponed. Numerous other deep cores in the Antarctic have been completed over the years, including the West Antarctic Ice Sheet project, and cores managed by the British Antarctic Survey and the International Trans-Antarctic Scientific Expedition. Soviet ice drilling projects in Antarctica include decades of work at Vostok Station, with the deepest core reaching 3769 m. Depths of over 400 m were reached, a record which was extended in the 1960s to 2164 m at Byrd Station in Antarctica. Ice cores have been studied since the early 20th century, and several cores were drilled as a result of the International Geophysical Year (1957–1958). Some volcanic events that were sufficiently powerful to send material around the globe have left a signature in many different cores that can be used to synchronise their time scales. Radioactive elements, either of natural origin or created by nuclear testing, can be used to date the layers of ice. Greenland ice cores contain layers of wind-blown dust that correlate with cold, dry periods in the past, when cold deserts were scoured by wind. Coastal areas are more likely to include material of marine origin, such as sea salt ions. Impurities in ice cores may depend on location. These data can be combined to find the climate model that best fits all the available data. Since heat flow in a large ice sheet is very slow, the borehole temperature is another indicator of temperature in the past. The proportions of different oxygen and hydrogen isotopes provide information about ancient temperatures, and the air trapped in tiny bubbles can be analysed to determine the level of atmospheric gases such as carbon dioxide. The physical properties of the ice and of material trapped in it can be used to reconstruct the climate over the age range of the core. Cores are drilled with hand augers (for shallow holes) or powered drills they can reach depths of over two miles (3.2 km), and contain ice up to 800,000 years old. Since the ice forms from the incremental buildup of annual layers of snow, lower layers are older than upper ones, and an ice core contains ice formed over a range of years. An ice core is a core sample that is typically removed from an ice sheet or a high mountain glacier.

Project vostok